Theology

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The main issue of this chapter is then, what are proper stopping-points for explanation, when do we have grounds for supposing that certain phenomena constitute such stopping-points and when do we have grounds for supposing that they themselves have an explanation. Having established general principles, we can then ask whether it is right to suppose that the physical universe, or the regular operation of scientific laws, or such particular events as (assuming that it happened) the resurrection of Christ from the dead, are just brute facts, or whether they are phenomena which it is reasonable to suppose to have a further explanation.

 

Before I come to deal properly with the central issue, I need first to make certain distinctions. The question of what is a 'terminus' of explanation needs a more technical explication. And partial explanation of some phenomenon. An explanation of E by F is a full one if F includes both a cause, C, and a reason, R, which together necessitated the occurrence of E. (Recall that on the Hempelian account of scientific explanation C are initial conditions and R natural laws; whereas in personal explanation C is a person, and R that person's intentions, beliefs, and capacities.) If C and R together provide a full explanation of E, nothing else logically contingent beside C and R needed to be so in order for the occurrence of E to be guaranteed, and so a proposition reporting C and R entails a proposition reporting E. Thus a scientific explanation of an eclipse of the moon E is a full one if it cites all the natural laws involved, L (laws of motion and laws of light propagation), and precedent states of the world C necessary for the occurrence of E, viz. the positions and masses of moon, sun, and earth, and the absence of other heavenly bodies in the region, and if L and C together entail E. An explanation of E is only a partial one if the explanation includes factors which brought about the occurrence of E, but these factors did not necessitate the occurrence of E. 

What, to start with, are the grounds for supposing that phenomena do not have a scientific explanation? Phenomena of two kinds can be shown not to be explicable scientifically. First, there are phenomena which are too odd to be fitted into the established pattern of scientific explanation, and secondly there are phenomena which are too big to be fitted into any pattern of scientific explanation.

 

To show phenomena too odd to be explicable scientifically the theist needs to show that there is good evidence for a scientific system h covering a certain range of phenomena, but that it is not a consequence of h that certain phenomena (within the general range of h) occur; and that any attempt to amend or expand h to allow it to predict e would make h so complex or for other reasons to have such low prior probability that it would be very improbable that it is true. Theists have claimed various particular phenomena to be too odd to be scientifically explicable. Among these, if we assume that they occur, are violations of laws of nature such as levitations, or people getting better from polio in a minute, or blood suddenly liquefying, or men walking on water, events which theists claim to be miracles. A somewhat different example of a particular event which, if it occurred, would be scientifically inexplicable, would be the first event or initial state of the universe.

However, clearly many persons of great moral sensitivity have reached a different conclusion from mine. Those who are inclined to follow them may well feel that although in itself the existence of evil does provide a good C-inductive argument against the existence of God, the argument will fail if we complicate somewhat the hypothesis of theism. We have already considered one way of doing this—adding to the hypothesis of theism the hypothesis of bad angels. Fairly clearly many, many years ago theism came to include this hypothesis for just this reason—to deal with the problem of evil. Another hypothesis added to theism partly also under the pressure of this problem is the hypothesis of life after death.  Men felt that God would only bring about or allow others to bring about great suffering if there was a life after death in which God could restore the victims to health of mind and soul. I have not myself argued along these lines, but I can see very strong reasons why a God would choose to bring about life after death, including the reason of the compensating for evils of life on earth. If any one wishes to add this hypothesis to theism to save it from the force of an argument from evil, he must however bear in mind that theism then becomes a more complicated hypothesis, and hence has less prior probability and so needs more in the way of confirming evidence to raise its over-all probability on evidence, to (e.g.) more than ½.

A man may accept the arguments of the previous two chapters in principle. He may agree that one does need a substantial amount of various kinds of evil in order to provide the opportunity for greater goods, and in particular a choice of destiny for men, to a significant degree. But he may feel that there is just too much evil in the world, and that less evil would produce adequate benefit. It might be said that a God could give to man choice enough by allowing him to inflict quite a bit of pain on his fellows, and could deter a man from harmful actions by some nasty headaches. In our world, the objection goes, things are too serious. There is too much evil which man can do to his fellow, and deterrents of too great seriousness, and so too unpleasant natural evils to give men knowledge thereof. The suffering of children and animals is something which rightly often appals us. The game, it may be said, is not worth the candle. This is, I believe, the crux of the problem of evil. It is not the fact of evil or the kinds of evil which are the real threat to theism; it is the quantity of evil—both the number of people (and animals) who suffer and the amount which they suffer. If there is a God, he has given man too much choice, the objection in effect says. He has inflicted too much suffering on too many people (and animals) to give knowledge to others for the sake of the freedom of the latter; he has given to man too much opportunity to do evil, and used too powerful deterrents to certain bad actions instead of just stopping men from doing them by force. With the objection that if there is a God, he has overdone it, I feel considerable initial sympathy. The objection seems to count against the claim that there is a God.

 

 

I have been suggesting that it is good for God to allow men to have deep responsibility for other men, particularly their children; and for animals, who in turn have responsibility for their own offspring; and that it is good for God to allow men and animals to suffer for the sake of the knowledge provided to themselves and others, and for the sake of the opportunities provided for performing good actions and deepening knowledge. But even if this is correct, does God have the right to inflict harm on us for the sake of this greater good? Surely no one has this right to inflict harm on an agent for his greater good, let alone for the greater good of another, without the agent's consent. We judge that doctors who use people as involuntary guinea-pigs for medical experiments are doing something wrong.

A further argument why God might permit natural evils to be suffered by men is the argument from higher-order goods, the argument that various evils are logically necessary conditions for the occurrence of actions of certain especially good kinds. Thus for a man to bear his suffering cheerfully there has to be suffering for him to bear. Within limits a sufferer can choose whether to react to his suffering with cheerfulness or with self-pity. There have to be acts which irritate for another to show tolerance of them. Likewise it is often said, acts of forgiveness, courage, self-sacrifice, compassion, overcoming temptation, etc., can only be performed if there are evils of various kinds. Here, however, we must be careful. One might reasonably claim that all that is necessary for some of these good acts (or acts as good as these) to be performed is belief in the existence of certain evils, not their actual existence. You can show compassion towards someone who appears to be suffering, but is not really; you can forgive someone who only appeared to insult you, but did not really. But if the world is to be populated with imaginary evils of the kind needed to enable creatures to perform acts of the above specially good kinds, it would have to be a world in which creatures are generally and systematically deceived about the feelings of their fellows—in which the behaviour of creatures generally and unavoidably belies their feelings and intentions. But, it is plausible to suppose,  it would be a morally wrong act of a creator to create such a deceptive world. In that case, given a creator, then, without an immoral act on his part, for acts of courage, compassion, etc., to be acts open to men to perform, there have to be various evils. Evils give men the opportunity to perform those acts which show men at their best. A world without evils would be a world in which men could show no forgiveness, no compassion, no self-sacrifice. And men without that opportunity are deprived of the opportunity to show themselves at their noblest. For this reason God might well allow some of his creatures to suffer in various ways, since this suffering provides the opportunity for especially noble acts.